Close
Memory Landscape
According to the official working definition of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) from 2016, antisemitism “is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities.”
It is often said that antisemitism is the oldest hatred in the world. Prejudice against Jews and their religion already existed in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. However, antisemitism as a conspiracy ideology and political movement only emerged in the 19th century, during the period in which Jews were being emancipated in many countries. Antisemites gave themselves this name to distance themselves from the old forms of hatred of Jews, which often had a religious basis. “Modern” antisemitism pretended to be “scientifically” based and regarded Jews not as a religious group but as a race that was foreign to Europe, as “Semites.” Today, the term “antisemitism” is often used as an umbrella term to describe various forms of hatred, discrimination, and violence against Jews, also often including historical manifestations of anti-Jewish oppression.
According to biblical tradition, the Israelites kept the tablets of the Ten Commandments in the Ark of Covenant. It was located in the inner sanctuary of the temple in Jerusalem. The original Ark of the Covenant has been lost to history.
The term “Ashkenaz” is the Middle Hebrew word for the region that today encompasses northeastern France and part of the Rhineland. Jews who settled in German-speaking areas in the Middle Ages, as well as their descendants, are referred to as “Ashkenazim” or Ashkenazi Jews. Due to numerous massacres and expulsions in the Middle Ages, many Ashkenazi Jews moved further east to Eastern Europe. Ashkenazi Jews form one of the largest Jewish cultural groups worldwide alongside the Sephardim and Mizrahim.
The term comes from Latin and means “adaptation” or “alignment.” In a socio-cultural context, it usually refers to the process of adaptation of a minority to the majority culture, often involving the abandonment of part of one’s own identity and culture. Assimilation can include, for example, learning the language of the majority culture and adopting its values and customs.
From 132 CE onwards, Simon bar Kochba led a Jewish revolt against the Roman Empire, which had conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE. Bar Kochba’s revolt lasted several years. Ultimately, however, the region was reconquered by the Romans, who changed the name of the area to Syria Palaestina.
When Jewish sports clubs were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries, they often referred to “Bar Kochba” or the “Maccabees” in reference to the physical and athletic resistance of Jews during these respective revolts.
see Temple
see Synagogue
also known as chazan.
A position held by Jews who have received special training in liturgical music and who lead worship services. Cantors often serve as prayer leaders.
Hechalutz means “the pioneer” in Hebrew. Hechalutz was the umbrella organization of Zionist youth organizations. There were a number of Chalutzim organizations spread throughout Europe.
also spelled Hanukkah.
This winter festival celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple following the Maccabean revolt against the foreign rule of the Hellenistic Seleucids and their supporters around 165 BCE. To mark the occasion, a candle is lit every evening for eight days on a special candelabrum called a Hanukkiah. In the Gregorian calendar, it usually falls in the month of December.
see Cantor
A religious movement within Judaism that has its roots in the 19th century. The word “conservative” should not be confused with its meaning in a political context, as this is not a particularly strict movement. Rather, Conservative Judaism sees itself as a religious domination that lies between Orthodoxy and Reform.
From the Greek word meaning “dispersion.” The term describes the existence of a group of people outside their traditional homeland.
also known as Sukkot in Hebrew.
The seven-day Feast of Tabernacles commemorates the time of the biblical desert migration, during which the people of Israel lived in simple shelters. Staying in a specially constructed, temporary hut (a sukkah) is therefore a characteristic feature of the festival. Sukkot takes place in the fall and is also described in ancient Jewish sources, such as Philo of Alexandria, as a harvest festival.
A religious office. A gabbai is responsible for ensuring that the religious service runs smoothly and assists the rabbi.
also spelled Halakha.
Halacha is often described as Jewish religious or ritual law. However, halachic regulations do not only concern purely ritual contexts but encompass all areas of life. Some halachot can be derived directly from the Torah and its interpretation, while others have been articulated over time by rabbis (Jewish clergy/legal scholars).
also spelled Chasidism.
A religious-mystical movement within Judaism that emerged in Eastern Europe during the 18th century. Hasidic Jews believe that traditional Torah study should be enriched with joy expressed through music and dance, as well as through a strong influence of Kabbalistic, i.e., Jewish-mystical, traditions and practices.
A mystical tradition within Judaism that emerged during the Middle Ages.
A prayer said for the deceased, among others, which also has a structurally dividing function in worship services.
The Jewish dietary laws. If a food is permitted, it is referred to as “kosher.”
also spelled Cohen; Priest.
Kohanim are those Jews whose families trace their ancestry back to the priestly class in the male line during the time of the Temple cult. They recite the priestly blessing, for example. In most reform Jewish congregations this and many other specific roles of the Kohanim are considered to be unnecessary.
The Levites assisted Kohanim (priests) in temple service when it still existed. Today, for example, they ritually wash a Kohen’s hands before he pronounces the priestly blessing for the congregation. Levites are those Jews whose families have passed down the lineage of the biblical Levites in the male line. In most reform Jewish congregations this and many other specific roles of the Levites are considered to be unnecessary.
At the beginning of the 20th century, liberal Judaism was the predominant Jewish movement in Germany. Since the 19th century, the term “liberal” has also been used to describe the Jewish reform movement, but it is not necessarily identical to it; rather, it describes a variety of non-orthodox movements that developed new relationships to the religious laws of Judaism (see Halacha).
Liberal Judaism as a religious denomination tends to emphasize the evolving nature of Judaism and that the process of revelation is not complete. The Torah is regarded as a central text, but one that does not necessarily have ultimate authority, and whose associated ceremonial laws can give way to its general ethical principles.
Order and content of the religious service.
Around 165 BCE, the Maccabees led the Jewish revolt against the hellenistic Seleucids, who ruled Judea at the time, and their supporters. Ultimately, they succeeded in rededicating the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, where an altar to Zeus had been built. The festival of Hanukkah commemorates these events. The name “Maccabi”/”Makkabi” is still widely used today among many Zionist-oriented organizations.
A machzor is a prayer book designed specifically for a particular holiday.
A territory under British rule, which geographically encompassed the present-day state of Israel and, at times, the territory of present-day Jordan. After the conquest of the territory by Great Britain in 1917/18, the mandate existed from its ratification by the League of Nations in 1922 until the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.
A ritual bath that must contain water from natural sources. Immersion in the mikveh is an act of ritual purification. Mikva’ot are used, for example, by Jewish women who observe specific religious rules after menstruation. According to most denominations, immersion in a mikvah is also necessary when converting to Judaism.
A ritual bath that must contain water from natural sources. Immersion in the mikveh is an act of ritual purification. Mikva’ot are used, for example, by Jewish women who observe specific religious rules after menstruation. According to most denominations, immersion in a mikvah is also necessary when converting to Judaism.
A mitzvah is a commandment or, especially in colloquial usage, a good deed. In Judaism, there are a total of 613 mitzvot commandments and prohibitions—derived from the Torah.
also spelled Mizrahi.
Jews who originate from African, Asian, and especially Middle Eastern and Islamic regions. “Mizrach” is the Hebrew word for East. Mizrachi Jews are one of the largest cultural groups of Jews alongside the Askhkenazim and Sephardim.
Also referred to as “law-abiding” or “Torah-abiding.” Orthodoxy is a movement within Judaism that defined itself in opposition to the newly emerging liberal Jewish denominations through its adherence to more traditional interpretations of the Torah. Within Orthodoxy, there are different movements and much diversity in terms of customs and the specific interpretation of specific rules.
also known as Pessach in Hebrew.
A spring festival celebrating the exodus from Egypt. During this period (eight days in the Diaspora), Jews are forbidden to consume or possess leavened foods (such as bread, pasta, etc.). Since Passover falls during the barley harvest in the Levant, it is also believed that Passover originated as a harvest festival.
From Russian, “devastation, destruction.” Violent attacks by the population on a group (usually a minority) and their property.
A prayer leader recites prayers during worship services, either alone or in alternation with the congregation. According to Orthodox understanding, this function can only be performed by men, as a prayer leader must have at least the same religious duties as those listening. This restriction does not exist in reform congregations.
also known as Birkat Kohanim in Hebrew, or Aaronic blessing.
The priestly blessing (Numbers 6:24–26) is recited by the Kohanim for a congregation in a prescribed manner.
A festival celebrating Queen Esther’s rescue of the Jewish people from a planned genocide in the Persian Empire. The Book of Esther is read publicly on this day. It is also customary to give to the needy, give each other food, hold a feast, and dress up in costumes.
A Jewish religious scholar whose job is to teach the Torah and ensure that (congregational) institutions are run in accordance with religious rules. Rabbis also serve as mediators and spiritual advisors for the congregation.
The office or seat of a rabbi.
An institution for the training of rabbis.
also known Bimah in Hebrew.
The raised platform from which the Torah is read publicly. Traditionally, it is located in the center of the synagogue room. Since the 19th century, many synagogues have introduced the practice of placing the bimah toward the back of the synagogue room.
A movement within Judaism that originated in 19th-century Germany. It is characterized by a strong emphasis on the ethical laws of Judaism, whereby ritual laws are considered less important and can be invalidated. Today, it is one of the largest Jewish denominations worldwide.
According to the Hebrew calendar, Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the new calendar year. According to Jewish tradition, Adam, the first human being, was created on this day. The festival is celebrated in the month of Tishri, which usually falls in September or October according to the Gregorian calendar.
see Synagogue
see Torah scroll
“Sepharad” is the medieval Hebrew term for the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and Sephardic Jews are the descendants of those Jews who lived there in the Middle Ages. At the end of the 15th century, all Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula and settled in various places, such as North Africa, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, but also in the Caribbean, North and South America, the Netherlands, and Denmark. Their customs and traditions differ in part from those of Ashkenazi Jews.
also known as the Sabbath.
The seventh day of the week, which is observed as a day of rest in Judaism. Since days begin in the evening according to the Hebrew calendar, Shabbat begins shortly before sunset on Friday evening and ends on Saturday after nightfall.
Literally “catastrophe, destruction”; the Hebrew term for the genocide of Jews, also known as the Holocaust, by the Nazis and their collaborators. During the Shoah approximately two-thirds of Europe’s Jewish population were murdered.
A ram’s horn or antelope horn. It is traditionally blown on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
A Siddur (plural: Siddurim) is a prayer book.
also Bet Knesset in Hebrew or Schul in Yiddish.
A synagogue is a Jewish place of worship where religious services are held. The term comes from Greek and means “assembly.” Synagogues are generally built with an orientation toward Jerusalem.
A Jewish religious association that holds regular communal worship services, either in a prayer room or in a synagogue built specifically for this purpose.
A collection of writings in the Jewish tradition containing interpretations of and discussions about the concrete implementation of the laws derived from the Torah. The Talmud was compiled over several centuries in the period following the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans. The Talmud is one of the most central texts of the Jewish religion.
also known Bet haMikdash in Hebrew.
The temple housed the Ark of the Covenant and served as a place of sacrifice. It was thus the religious center of the Israelites in (pre-)ancient times. There were two temples (one after the other), both of which were destroyed during invasions. The hope for the reconstruction of the temple is deeply rooted in traditional liturgy, although liberal movements tend to distance themselves from this. Reform congregations often refer to their places of worship as temples – this is to make it clear that synagogues, as places of gathering in this movement, have definitively replaced the temple.
A distinction is made between the written and oral Torah. The written Torah comprises the five books of Moses, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The oral Torah refers to the traditions of interpretation and commentary that have developed around this text, initially passed down orally but also partially written down. The oral Torah is therefore constantly evolving, as changes in external circumstances and technological advances continually raise new questions. “Torah” is sometimes also used as a general term for the entirety of the writings in the Hebrew Bible.
also known as Aron haKodesch in Hebrew.
This is where Torah scrolls are kept in the synagogue. They are usually placed against the wall facing Jerusalem.
also known as Sefer Torah in Hebrew.
A parchment scroll on which the Torah is written by hand. It is read from during religious services. The torah scroll contains the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, known also as the Books of Moses.
Yiddish is a Jewish language with various dialects that is related to German and originated in medieval Germany. The vast majority of German Jews stopped speaking their dialect of Yiddish during the Enlightenment in the late 18th and 19th centuries. As a result, since the 19th century, Yiddish has been known primarily as the language of the Eastern European Jewish diaspora. Today, however, there are only a few native speakers left because of the Shoah. Yiddish is written using the Hebrew alphabet. To make this possible—since Hebrew is written without vowels—some letters are assigned vowel sounds.
also known as the Day of Atonement.
The holiest day in Judaism. It is a day of reflection, repentance, and fasting. The day ends with the blowing of the shofar.
Zionism emerged in Europe at the end of the 19th century. At that time, many Jewish people were experiencing not only increasing nationalism in their countries, but also growing antisemitism. In response to both, the idea developed that Jews needed their own country where they too could live with self-determination and without persecution. The term “Zionism” indicates the place where they thought this would be possible: it refers to “Zion,” a metaphor for Jerusalem, a place that has always played an important role in Judaism.
For many Jews in Central Europe, Zionism was a new and revolutionary way of understanding themselves. They rejected the view, which was widespread among Jews since the 19th century, that being Jewish was primarily a matter of religion. Zionists, on the other hand, emphasized that Jews form a nation, i.e., a people, and should therefore have the same rights as other nations.
However, Zionism was and is a very diverse movement. There were socialist and bourgeois movements, conservative and Marxist currents, as well as religious and secular groups. The political goals within the Zionist movement also varied. However, many Zionists shared a common idea: after centuries as a persecuted minority, they finally wanted to live together in a country where they were the majority. It is important to note that the idea of a separate Jewish state was not established from the outset. It was only in the 1930s that it became a clear goal for almost all Zionists; in 1942, it was officially established as the primary goal. In 1948, three years after the end of World War II and the Shoah, the Holocaust, the State of Israel was finally founded.
We use cookies to improve your user experience.
You can manage your settings here.